EXCHANGE 


• 


OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


THE    WITHER    FORMBOARD 


BY 


HERMAN  H.  YOUNG 


An  Abstract  of  a  Thesis 

Presented  to  the  Faculty  of  the  Graduate  School  in 

partial  fulfilment  of  the  requirements  for  the 

degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 


PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 
1916 


Reprinted  from 

The  Psychological  Clinic, 

Vol.  X,  No.  4,  June  15,  1916. 


THE  WITMER  FORMBOARD. 


In  its  various  modifications  the  formboard  is  in  general  uee 
among  clinical  psychologists,  and  appears  to  have  won  a  permanent 
place  among  the  tests  to  be  regularly  employed  in  clinical  labora- 
tories. It  is  a  developmental  outgrowth  of  the  simpler  contrivances 
first  used  by  Itard  and  Seguin  for  training  purposes. 

The  formboard  used  in  this  investigation  differs  in  size,  number, 
and  arrangement  of  blocks  from  any  heretofore  described.  It  is 
Dr.  Lightner  Witmer's  final  modification  of  the  formboard  described 
and  standardized  by  Dr.  R.  H.  Sylvester  [6].  The  Witmer  form- 
board  was  adopted  to  replace  the  older  types,  only  after  careful 
and  extended  experimentation  in  which  many  other  variations  in 
size,  number,  and  arrangement  of  blocks  were  applied  to  children 
in  the  Psychological  Clinic  and  to  students  in  psychology  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  It  was  the  opinion  of  those  concerned 
that  this  smaller  board  has  all  the  advantages  of  the  older  and  larger 
boards,  and  in  addition  has  qualities  which  make  it  more  desirable 
as  a  test.  It  is  more  attractive,  looking  like  a  toy  or  puzzle.  Both 
boards  were  given  to  a  number  of  children,  alternating  them  on 
successive  trials.  When  the  children  were  asked  which  board  they 
preferred,  the  answers  were  predominately  in  favor  of  the  smaller 
board.  This  smaller  board  also  makes  a  much  more  convenient 
piece  of  apparatus,  as  it  does  not  take  up  so  much  store  room  and 
is  very  easily  carried  about.  Moreover  the  addition  of  an  extra 
block  makes  it  a  slightly  more  complicated  test. 

The  Witmer  formboard  contains  eleven  geometrical  figures  as 
nearly  uniform  in  size  as  their  variety  of  form  will  allow.  The 
square  block  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner  of  the  board  is  one  and 
a  half  inches  on  a  side  by  half  an  inch  in  thickness.  All  the  blocks 
are  the  same  thickness.  The  recess  on  the  board  corresponding  to 
each  block  is  just  enough  larger  than  the  block  to  permit  it  to  be 
fitted  in  loosely,  i.  e.  easily  without  becoming  wedged  in  place,  yet 

(93) 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 


'with  -fcnit*  little  play.  The  depth  of  each  recess  is  one-half  that  of 
the  blocks,  so  that  the  blocks  when  in  place  extend  one-fourth  of 
an  inch  above  the  surface  of  the  board.  The  blocks  and  their 
recesses  are  of  such  size  and  shape  that  no  block  can  be  fitted  into 
any  recess  other  than  its  own;  in  other  words,  the  board  is  self- 
correcting. 


THE  WITMEB  FORMBOARD. 

The  entire  board,  including  the  raised  edge  on  each  side  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch  wide,  is  one  foot  square.  The  surrounding  edge 
fits  flush  with  the  back  of  the  board,  but  extends  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  above  the  face  of  the  board  or  even  with  the  blocks  when  in 
place.  At  the  top  a  tray  extends  across  the  entire  board,  three 
and  one-fourth  inches  wide  and  one-half  inch  deep,  or  as  deep  as 
the  blocks  are  thick.  Both  board  and  blocks  are  neatly  stained, 
the  board  being  light  oak  and  the  blocks  walnut,  while  the  recesses 
are-  painted  black.  This  produces  an  effective  contrast  between 
board,  blocks,  and  recesses. 


THE  WITHER  FORMBOARD.  95 

The  tray  at  the  top  of  the  board  is  a  receptacle  for  the  blocks 
when  removed  from  their  recesses.  It  determines  definitely  where 
the  blocks  are  to  be  placed  and  insures  that  they  shall  be  within 
reach  of  the  subject  throughout  the  test.  When  the  examiner 
wishes  to  carry  the  board  with  him  from  school  to  school,  the  entire 
face  of  the  board  may  be  covered  by  a  lid  made  for  the  purpose. 
In  this  case  the  record  blanks  are  carried  in  the  tray. 

It  is  only  within  the  last  few  years  that  the  formboard  has 
been  extensively  used  as  a  testing  device.  During  its  short  history 
it  has  undergone  many  alterations  and  modifications,  so  that  in  its 
present  form  and  appearance  it  is  as  remote  from  the  original  as 
the  purpose  it  subserves,  having  been  first  used  in  training  sub- 
normal children.  In  none  of  its  developmental  or  final  forms  has 
a  reliable  and  comprehensive  standardization  ever  been  carried 
to  completion.  A  number  have  been  attempted,  several  hundred 
children  tested,  and  the  results  labeled  " Standardization;"  but 
without  exception  the  range  of  variations  has  been  entirely  too 
large  for  the  number  of  cases  tested.  The  investigations  thus  con- 
ducted are,  however,  not  to  be  discredited  and  pronounced  valueless 
on  this  account.  Their  defect  is  one  of  omission  rather  than  of 
commission.  A  complete  and  reliable  standardization  will  require 
the  testing  of  many  thousand  normal  children  and  adults. 

Perhaps  the  most  constructive  piece  of  work  done  with  the 
formboard  is  that  by  Dr.  Sylvester  [6].  His  standardization  is 
subject  to  the  criticisms  made  above,  but  certain  features  of  his 
work  have  served  as  the  basis  for  more  recent  investigations.  In 
the  first  place  he  demonstrated  the  necessity  of  giving  at  least  three 
trials.  He  showed  that  three  trials  were  sufficient  reliably  to  deter- 
mine the  subject's  formboard  ability  and  that  more  trials  would 
be  of  little  value,  i.  e.  the  time  spent  would  be  out  of  proportion  to 
the  accuracy  gained  [7].  In  the  second  place  he  showed  that  of 
these  three  trials  the  shortest  constitutes  the  most  reliable  single 
index  of  the  subject's  formboard  ability.  This  does  not  mean  that 
it  is  an  infallible  guide,  but  that  on  the  whole  it  is  more  accurate 
than  any  other  single  feature,  even  than  the  average  of  three  trials  [8]. 
In  the  third  place,  he  demonstrated  that  the  number  of  errors  made 
by  normal  children  is  too  few  to  have  value  in  the  establishment 
of  standards,  and  that  their  average  shows  no  consistent  correla- 
tion with  age  [9].  Another  significant  fact  revealed  by  this  same 
investigation  is  the  negative  correlation  between  age  and  the  time 
required  for  replacing  the  blocks  [10].  This  clearly  demonstrates 
the  fundamental  basis  upon  which  a  satisfactory  standardization 
can  be  made.  Other  considerations  discussed  indicate  that  the 


96  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 

time  feature  of  the  test  constitutes  the  only  definite  basis  for  the 
establishment  of  norms. 

It  is  around  this  latter  feature  of  the  test  that  most  of  the 
experiments  and  discussions  concerning  the  formboard  center. 
It  would  take  us  too  far  afield  to  attempt  a  review  of  the  literature 
now  available  on  this  topic.  Aside  from  the  standardizations,  as 
they  have  been  carried  out  so  far,  the  above  summary  of  Sylvester's 
work  includes  the  important  features  now  generally  recognized. 
There  are  several  minor  investigations,  but  they  do  not  advance 
beyond  what  Sylvester  has  done.  As  they  merely  serve  to  establish 
more  fully  the  importance  of  the  test,  they  will  be  referred  to  in  the 
bibliography  or  in  the  text  as  occasion  may  require. 

If  now  we  turn  from  the  past  to  the  present  and  look  to  the 
future  development  of  the  formboard  test,  we  see  at  once  that  most 
of  the  real  w^ork  is  yet  to  be  done.  We  have  not  even  a  reliable 
age  standardization  at  our  command.  It  appears  evident,  as  stated 
above,  that  an  age  standard  is  the  easiest  to  establish,  and  so  far 
as  discovered  is  the  only  one  possible  at  present.  Attempts  have 
been  made  and  are  being  made  to  correlate  formboard  ability  with 
other  mental  traits  and  capacities,  but  no  conclusive  results  have 
yet  been  produced.  This  failure  is,  perhaps,  due  as  much  to  the 
inadequacy  of  the  method  and  the  indefiniteness  of  the  various 
mental  traits  and  acquisitions  with  which  correlation  is  attempted, 
as  to  any  defect  in  the  formboard  test.  We  cannot  hope  to  get 
significantly  conclusive  results  from  comparisons  until  the  mental 
processes  and  traits  compared  are  more  precisely  defined  and  proved 
to  be  simple  and  elementary,  instead  of  complexes.  Too  often 
attempts  are  made  to  compare  incommensurate  qualities. 

The  considerations  just  summarized  have  prompted  the  present 
investigation  and  determined  in  general  the  scope  of  the  work 
attempted.  It  was  undertaken  and  completed  as  a  preliminary 
and  basic  outline  of  a  series  of  comprehensive  investigations  and 
reports  to  be  made  on  this  one  test.  The  reasons  for  calling  this  a 
preliminary  study  and  avoiding  dogmatic  conclusions  and  inter- 
pretations have  steadily  gained  weight  as  work  has  progressed. 
Problems  and  possibilities  were  opened  which  indicate  roughly 
the  extent  and  character  of  the  necessary  future  investigations  for 
the  establishment  of  reliable  norms  of  even  the  simplest  sort  and 
for  finality  in  any  sense. 

A  glance  at  the  distributions  of  the  time  records  shows  that 
the  norms  here  established  are  only  approximately  correct,  and 
that  with  two  or  three  times  as  many  records  they  might* be  con- 
siderably shifted.  As  in  all  preceding  investigations,  we  shall  also 


THE  WITHER  FORMBOARD.  97 

see  that  there  is  a  consistent  negative  correlation  between  time 
and  age  up  to  the  ages  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  at  least.  Up  to  the  age 
of  thirteen,  half-year  groupings  are  necessary.  It  is  possible  that 
further  investigations  will  show  these  groups  to  be  too  large.  A 
second  conclusion  for  which  we  have  considerable  evidence,  is  that 
in  general  there  is  a  sex  difference  in  formboard  ability  in  favor 
of  the  boys.  At  present  we  must  be  content  with  these  generaliza- 
tions. Just  what  the  differences  are  from  one  age  to  the  next  and 
just  how  great  the  sex  differences  are,  must  be  left  for  future 
investigators  to  determine  experimentally. 

Until  age  norms  for  the  two  sexes,  separately,  are  more  reliably 
determined,  i.  e.  until  these  simplest  of  correlations  have  been  made, 
other  possible  and  attempted  correlations  must  necessarily  suffer 
a  severe  handicap.  With  age  norms  and  sex  differences  established, 
we  would  have  the  essential  material  at  our  command  to  attempt 
other  comparisons,  such  as  formboard  ability  with  class  standing, 
with  manual  training,  a  mechanical  turn  of  mind,  or  with  vocational 
adaptation. 

METHOD. 

The  test  is  presented  by  exactly  the  same  method  to  all  sub- 
jects, whether  they  be  normal  or  defective,  children  or  adults. 
Even  though  the  conditions  here  outlined  may  appear  trivial,  they 
are  in  certain  cases  of  great  importance.  If  they  are  not  carefully 
observed  and  standard  conditions  maintained  throughout,  a  failure 
or  poor  record  on  the  part  of  the  subject  may  indicate  the  examiner's 
incompetency  rather  than  the  subject's  inability.  The  sad  thing 
about  it  is  that  in  the  permanent  records,  it  is  marked  against  the 
subject. 

Height  of  the  table.  The  height  of  the  table  upon  which  the 
board  is  placed  is  the  only  variable.  This  is  to  be  suited  to  the 
convenience  of  the  individual  tested,  the  aim  being  to  have  the 
board  at  such  a  height  that  the  subject  can  perform  the  test  to 
the  best  advantage.  It  is  necessary  that  he  be  able  to  look  down 
upon  the  board.  If  he  can  barely  see  across  the  top,  he  is  compelled 
to  work  at  a  disadvantage,  as  he  cannot  see  the  recesses  properly 
and  cannot  use  his  arms  and  hands  freely. 

Position  of  board  on  table.  The  board  is  placed  horizontally 
on  the  table  with  its  lower  edge  (edge  opposite  tray)  even  with  the 
edge  of  the  table  nearest  the  subject.  It  is  very  important  that 
the  board  be  kept  in  this  position  and  be  constantly  watched.  In 
his  attempts  to  hurry,  a  subject  will  often  move  the  board  about 
considerably,  sometimes  getting  it  out  over  the  edge  of  the  table 


98  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 

where  it  may  tip  and  fall  to  the  floor,  and  sometimes  pushing  it 
back  from  the  edge  until  only  with  difficulty  can  he  reach  the  blocks 
in  the  tray. 

Position  of  subject.  The  subject  is  always  required  to  stand 
directly  in  front  of  the  board  throughout  the  test.  In  fact  he  is 
required  to  take  a  correct  position  with  respect  to  the  board  before 
the  directions  for  the  first  trial  are  given.  This  position  is  insisted 
upon,  because  it  gives  the  subject  more  freedom  than  any  other  in 
moving  about  during  the  performance  of  the  test.  He  can  readily 
adapt  his  position  to  see  to  the  best  advantage  both  blocks  and 
recesses,  and  has  unlimited  freedom  in  making  the  movements 
necessary  to  place  the  blocks  quickly  in  their  proper  recesses  by 
the  use  of  either  one  or  both  hands.  It  also  gives  the  experimenter 
opportunity  to  set  the  table  and  board  in  the  best  light  and  be  sure 
the  subject  will  not  have  to  work  in  his  own  shadow.  The  subject 
should  always  have  the  advantage  of  the  best  light  available. 

The  standard  method.  The  subject  is  introduced  to  the  test 
with  as  few  directions  as  possible.  The  standard  method  gives 
all  that  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  know.  It  is  purposely  intended 
to  throw  the  subject  upon  his  own  resources  and  allow  him  the 
greatest  opportunity  of  showing  what  he  is  really  able  to  do.  He 
is  given  no  negative  or  "Thou  shalt  not"  directions.  The  directions 
are  all  positive  and  active.  In  no  case  is  he  given  any  help  or  sug- 
gestions other  than  those  included  in  the  standard  directions. 
Inability  to  follow  the  standard  directions  or  complete  the  test 
correctly  without  additional  instruction  constitutes  a  failure.  These 
failures  will  be  treated  elsewhere  as  a  separate  investigation.  The 
entire  test  consists  of  three  trials  given  in  as  rapid  succession  as 
possible. 

First  trial.  As  soon  as  the  experimenter  knows  who  the  subject 
is  and  the  position  has  been  taken  before  the  board,  he  says  to  the 
subject,  "  I  am  going  to  take  these  blocks  out  and  put  them  up  here. 
I  want  to  see  how  quickly  you  can  put  them  back  where  they  belong.'* 
While  giving  these  directions  the  experimenter  removes  the  blocks 
from  their  recesses  and  distributes  them  in  a  haphazard  arrange- 
ment in  the  tray  at  the  top  of  the  board,  i.  e.  he  begins  to  remove 
the  blocks  at  the  same  time  he  begins  to  speak,  but  usually  finishes 
speaking  before  the  blocks  are  all  removed.  Then  after  the  blocks 
are  all  removed  the  experimenter  continues  the  directions  thus, 
"You  may  use  both  hands,  and  work  just  as  fast  as  you  can."  This 
is  generally  sufficient  to  induce  the  subject  to  begin  replacing  the 
blocks  at  once.  If  he  hesitates  with  an  air  of  uncertainty,  as  if 
waiting  for  the  "ready"  signal,  the  experimenter  may  add,  "You 


THE  WITHER  FORMBOARD.  99 

may  begin  as  soon  as  you  are  ready,"  or  "Go  ahead,'7  or  "All 
right,"  or  "See  how  quickly  you  can  put  them  in."  If,  however, 
these  additional  directions  fail  to  bring  an  appropriate  response, 
the  test  is  considered  a  failure.  If  the  subject  goes  to  work  at  once, 
the  time  is  recorded  by  means  of  a  stop  watch  from  the  moment 
he  touches  the  first  block  until  the  last  block  is  set  securely  into 
its  proper  recess.  For  the  test  to  be  completed  correctly  all  the 
blocks  must  be  set  down  firmly  in  their  respective  recesses;  but 
a  trial  may  be  accepted  as  correct  if  only  one  block  is  left  lying  loosely, 
but  turned  correctly  upon  its  recess,  providing  the  other  ten  are 
set  in  properly.  It  is  advisable  to  encourage  and  assure  the  sub- 
ject of  his  success  by  saying,  "That's  right,"  as  soon  as  he  has  all 
the  blocks  correctly  replaced. 

Second  trial.  This  follows  the  completion  of  the  first  trial 
immediately  without  comment  of  any  kind  whatever.  On  this 
trial  the  test  is  presented  to  every  subject  not  only  with  the  same 
directions,  but  with  the  blocks  in  a  set  arrangement.  The  general 
principle  of  this  arrangement  is  that  the  blocks  shall  not  come  in 
regular  order,  and  shall  not  when  removed  be  in  the  tray  directly 
above  their  respective  recesses.  Since  the  experimenter,  in  repeat- 
ing the  test,  tends  unconsciously  to  fall  into  the  habit  of  removing 
the  blocks  always  in  a  certain  manner,  it  seemed  advisable  to  deter- 
mine the  proper  course  of  this  habit  before  it  was  formed  and 
thereby  be  assured  that  it  will  not  defeat  its  purpose.  The  following 
arrangement  was  therefore  decided  upon  and  rigidly  followed : 

The  blocks  are  placed  in  the  tray,  arranged  in  three  piles.  One 
pile,  set  in  the  tray  directly  above  recess  number  1,  contains  blocks 
5,  10,  7,  and  8,  numbering  from  the  top  of  the  pile  downward. 
The  second  pile,  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  tray,  contains  blocks 
11,  2,  and  9,  numbering  from  the  top  downward.  The  third  pile, 
placed  in  the  tray  directly  above  recess  9,  contains  blocks  1,  6,  4, 
and  3,  numbering  from  the  top  downward.  The  blocks  of  each 
pile  are  picked  up  or  removed  from  the  recesses  with  one  hand  by 
taking  them  in  the  order  of  their  numbers,  as  indicated  above. 
Thus  the  first  pile  is  formed  by  picking  out  block  5  and  placing  it 
on  block  10,  then  picking  up  these  two  and  placing  them  on  block 
7,  then  these  three  and  placing  them  on  block  8,  and  last  of  all 
picking  up  all  four  and  placing  them  in  the  tray  directly  above 
recess  number  1. 

While  the  blocks  are  being  removed  in  the  manner  described 
above,  the  experimenter  says,  "Now  I  am  going  to  take  the  blocks 
out  in  this  order  (or  a  definite  order)  and  I  want  to  see  if  you  can't 
put  them  in  quicker. '  Then  when  the  blocks  are  all  removed, 


100  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 

he  spurs  the  subject  on  thus,  "Now  see  how  quickly  you  can  put 
them  in."  The  time  is  recorded  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as 
on  the  first  trial.  Unless  all  the  blocks  are  correctly  replaced  with- 
out further  suggestion  the  test  is  recorded  as  a  failure. 

Third  trial.  As  soon  as  all  the  blocks  are  correctly  replaced 
on  the  second  trial,  the  following  directions  are  given,  "Now  (or 
this  time)  you  may  take  the  blocks  out  to  suit  yourself,  and  see 
if  you  can't  put  them  in  still  quicker."  The  subject  is  given 
unlimited  freedom  in  the  removal  of  the  blocks  and  their  arrange- 
ment, with  the  single  exception  that  he  is  required  to  place  them  in 
the  tray.  As  soon  as  he  has  removed  all  the  blocks,  he  is  urged  to 
do  his  best  by  saying,  "Now  see  how  quickly  you  can  replace  them 
(or  put  them  in)."  The  time  is  again  taken  as  on  the  first  trial, 
and  the  test  is  complete. 

QUANTITATIVE  TREATMENT. 

Exactly  the  same  method  was  employed  in  securing  all  the 
records  treated  in  this  monograph,  and  as  far  as  uniformity  can 
be  obtained,  the  records  of  all  the  children  tested  are  comparable. 
For  various  reasons  beyond  the  control  of  the  author,  he  cannot 
be  personally  responsible  for  the  reliability  of  all  the  adult  records, 
although  he  believes  the  errors  are  small,  perhaps  negligible. 

The  distinction  between  children  and  adults  in  this  treatment 
is  arbitrary,  but  justifiable.  All  college  students  and  public  school 
teachers  are  considered  adults  regardless  of  age.  They  make  up 
nearly  the  entire  adult  group.  Its  age  limits  are  very  wide — from 
sixteen  to  sixty  years. 

All  pupils  of  the  public  schools  are  considered  as  children,  and 
are  grouped  according  to  sex  and  age.  The  children  of  this  investi- 
gation constitute  an  unselected  group  of  pupils  from  the  regular 
classes  of  the  Philadelphia  public  elementary  schools.  Unselected 
means  that  there  was  no  selection  on  the  part  of  the  examiner,  and 
that  he  tested  all  the  children  from  the  regular  classes  in  those 
schools  in  which  he  did  his  testing.  The  schools  in  which  the  testing 
was  done  lie  in  two  very  different  sections  of  the  city.  Of  the  first 
sixteen  hundred  children  tested,  about  75  or  80  per  cent  are  of 
foreign  parentage  and  live  in  the  poorer  sections  of  the  city.  The 
last  twelve  hundred  children  tested,  with  the  exception  of  about 
3  or  4  per  cent,  are  of  American  parentage  of  the  professional  classes 
and  live  in  one  of  the  best  sections  of  the  city.  These  different 
sections  were  chosen  in  an  effort  to  make  the  quantified  results 
more  typical  and  reliable. 

Records  eliminated.     Although  there  was  no  selection  of  the 


THE  WITHER  FORMBOARD.  101 

children  to  be  tested,  it  was  found  necessary  to  make  certain  elimi- 
nations after  the  data  had  been  collected.  Eliminations  were  not 
made  without  abundant  evidence  of  justification.  In  no  case  was 
a  record  excluded  merely  because  the  time  record  did  not  prove  to 
be  what  the  examiner  expected. 

The  eliminations  can  roughly  be  divided  into  two  general  classes. 
The  first  contains  those  cases  who  failed  to  complete  the  test 
correctly  without  instructions  other  than  the  standard  directions. 
These  are  eliminated  because  they  failed  to  perform  the  test 
properly,  and  because  the  method  of  treating  failures,  that  of 
giving  the  subjects  help  and  then  estimating  the  amount  of  help 
given,  is  unsatisfactory  and  does  not  lend  itself  to  standardization. 
These  cases  are  not  comparable  with  those  who  did  the  test  suc- 
cessfully, or  even  with  one  another.  The  only  respect  in  which 
they  are  comparable  is,  that  with  a  standard  method  and  under 
standard  conditions  they  failed  to  complete  the  test.  Failure  in 
this  sense  does  not  mean  feeblemindedness.  Just  what  it  indicates 
cannot  be  determined  without  more  extensive  investigation  and 
study.  The  number  of  failures  for  each  age  is  given  at  the  top  of 
the  table  of  distributions.  Of  these  failures,  72  per  cent  occurred 
on  the  first  trial  only,  12  per  cent  occurred  on  the  second  trial  only, 
while  11  per  cent  occurred  on  both  the  first  and  second  trials,  the 
third  trial  being  a  success.  Failure  occurred  for  the  first  time  on 
the  third  trial  in  about  3  per  cent  of  the  cases.  Two  children  failed 
on  all  three  trials. 

The  second  group  of  eliminations  contains  the  records  thrown 
out  entirely  from  the  above  group  and  from  the  group  who  completed 
the  test  correctly.  It  includes  the  records  of  four  children  whose 
ages  could  not  be  verified,  of  one  boy  whose  vision  was  so  defective 
that  it  interfered  seriously  with  his  performance,  of  two  children 
diagnosed  as  not  higher  than  borderline  cases,  and  four  children 
diagnosed  as  feebleminded  at  the  Psychological  Clinic  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania. 

As  the  result  of  questionable  formboard  performances,  about 
twelve  children  have  been  examined  at  the  Psychological  Clinic. 
Of  these,  six,  as  indicated  above,  have  been  diagnosed  as  below 
normal,  while  the  others  have  been  pronounced  normal.  Of  the 
six  diagnosed  as  borderline  cases  and  feebleminded,  three  failed 
and  required  help  on  at  least  one  trial  of  the  formboard  test.  None 
of  the  other  three  failed  on  any  trial,  but  completed  it  successfully. 
The  shortest  trial  of  the  girl  diagnosed  as  a  borderline  case  was  6 
seconds  longer  than  the  maximum  for  her  age.  The  other  two  who 
completed  it  without  failure,  but  were  diagnosed  as  feebleminded) 


102  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 

were  boys.  The  shortest  trial  of  the  one  was  next  to  the  longest 
record  for  his  age;  the  shortest  trial  record  of  the  other  was  within 
the  upper  or  poorest  10  per  cent  for  his  age.  It  is  therefore  evident 
that  some  feebleminded  children  may  pass  the  formboard  test 
successfully,  but  so  far  as  our  experience  goes  do  not  win  special 
honors.  On  the  other  hand,  some  normal  children  may  fail  to 
complete  the  test  correctly  on  at  least  two  of  their  three  trials. 
This  has  been  demonstrated  by  the  fact  that  children  who  failed 
on  the  formboard  test  when  it  was  given  in  the  school  have  been 
diagnosed  as  normal  by  the  Clinic.  Of  five  such  failures  sent  to 
the  Clinic,  and  there  diagnosed  as  normal,  four  failed  on  two  of 
their  three  trials.  It  must  be  remembered  that  only  those  who  made 
the  worst  failures  were  sent  to  the  Clinic.  Since  some  of  those 
who  make  the  worst  failures  prove  normal,  and  some  feebleminded, 
our  position  is  definitely  established  that  we  do  not  know  the 
significance  of  failure,  but  that  it  does  not  necessarily  mean  feeble- 
mindedness. It  appears  that,  if  we  must  depend  entirely  upon 
time  records  or  other  quantifiable  data  in  the  treatment  and  inter- 
pretation of  such  cases,  we  are  helpless. 

SUCCESSFUL  PERFORMANCES. 

This  group  includes  the  records  of  all  the  public  elementary 
school  pupils  in  regular  classes  tested,  except  those  eliminated  in 
the  preceding  section.  It  also  includes  the  records  of  221  adults. 

All  the  records  are  classified  according  to  the  sex  and  age  of  the 
subject.  Up  to  the  end  of  the  twelfth  year,  the  classifications  are 
by  half-year  groups,  after  that  to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  year  by 
year  groups,  and  lastly  those  from  seventeen  to  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  year  are  thrown  into  one  group.  In  the  charts  and 
tables  each  age  group  is  designated  by  the  middle  value  of  the 
group.  Thus  the  group  headed  6.25  includes  all  the  children  who 
are  six  years  old,  but  less  than  six  years  and  six  months  old,  i.  e. 
it  ends  with  the  end  of  the  fifth  month.  Those  who  are  six  years 
and  six  months  old,  but  less  than  seven  years  of  age  come  in  the 
group  headed  6.75.  The  13.50  group  contains  all  children  thirteen 
years  of  age. 

No  record  was  kept  of  the  number  or  character  of  errors  made 
by  these  children.  The  work  of  other  investigators  already  referred 
to,  shows  the  futility  of  such  records,  especially  for  normal  children. 
At  no  time  during  this  investigation  has  the  need  of  such  a  record 
been  felt.  It  is  much  more  important  to  consider  why  a  child  makes 
errors  than  merely  to  know  what  errors  he  makes.  If  the  examiner 
gives  his  attention  to  the  number  and  kind  of  errors,  he  cannot 
study  the  performance  analytically  while  it  is  in  progress. 


THE  WITHER  FORMBOARD.  103 

The  only  data  uniformly  collected  from  the  performances  of 
all  the  subjects  tested,  were  the  time  records  for  each  of  the  three 
trials.  In  some  of  the  cases  a  record  was  also  kept  of  those  who 
removed  and  replaced  the  blocks  according  to  some  plan  on  the 
third  trial.  This  latter  feature  was  noted  in  an  endeavor  to  deter- 
mine the  advisability  and  possibility  of  standardizing  qualitative 
factors.  It  was  found  impossible  in  many  cases  to  decide  whether 
a  subject  intended  to  plan  or  if  he  just  happened  to  remove  the 
blocks  according  to  a  plan.  In  reality  the  easiest  way  to  remove 
the  blocks  happens  to  be  the  best  plan. 

The  shortest  of  the  three  trials  is  taken  as  the  index  of  an 
individual's  formboard  ability.  This  is  generally  taken  by  other 
investigators  as  the  most  reliable  single  index.  It  is  easily  deter- 
mined and  lends  itself  readily  to  statistical  treatment.  So  far  as 
this  investigation  goes,  it  distinctly  supports  the  earlier  formboard 
studies  which  establish  and  adopt  this  as  the  most  satisfactory 
basis  for  standardization.  The  shortest  trial  is  here  taken  as  the 
basis  for  the  quantitative  treatment  of  results. 

Tables  I  and  II  contain  the  distributions  of  the  shortest  trial 
time  records  for  each  age  group;  table  I  for  boys  and  table  II  for 
girls.  Across  the  top  of  the  table,  opposite  F  on  the  ordinate,  are 
the  number  of  failures  for  each  age.  They  are  given  merely  to 
show  their  relative  frequencies  and  distribution.  Otherwise  they 
have  no  relation  or  significance  in  the  tables  of  distribution  or  their 
quantification.  The  numbers  in  parentheses,  across  the  bottom  of 
the  tables  beneath  the  ages,  show  the  number  of  cases  in  each  age 
group  included  in  the  distributions.  They  do  not  include  the 
failures  indicated  above.  These  tables  show  the  distribution  of 
the  time  records  in  the  different  ages  and  the  general  tendency  for 
them  to  shift  downward  toward  shorter  times  with  the  increasing 
age  of  the  subjects.  They  also  show  that  in  several  ages  there  is 
one  extra  long  time  record  and  that  in  several  others  the  range  of 
distribution  is  unusually  narrow.  The  explanation  of  this  latter 
condition  lies  in  the  fact  that  not  enough  children  have  been  tested 
in  any  age  group  to  determine  reliably  and  definitely  the  range  of 
distribution  within  which  the  records  of  all  normal  children  fall. 
It  appears,  however,  that  enough  cases  are  here  presented  to  indicate 
in  a  general  way  the  tendencies  of  the  various  age  distributions  and 
their  central  values. 

The  range  of  distribution  is  wider  and  the  standard  deviations 
are  larger  for  the  records  collected  in  this  investigation  than  for 
those  reported  by  any  other  investigator.  Two  factors  are  largely 
responsible  for  these  differences.  In  the  first  place,  the  standard 


104 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 


TABLE  I. — DISTRIBUTION  OP  SHORTEST  TRIAL  TIME  RECORDS  OF  1474  BOYS. 


F 

569 

4     14      6 

11      4      5 

2      4      1 

1      1 

i 

92 
67 

60 
59 
58 
57 
56 

1 

1 
1 

1 
1 

1 
2 

55 
54 
53 
52 
51 

2 
1 
1      1 

1 

50 
49 
48 
47 
46 

1 

1             1 

1 

1 
1             1 

1 

45 
44 
43 
42 
41 

1 
1 

2            1 
1      1 
1 
2 
1             1 

1 
1 

2 

40 
39 
38 
37 
36 

1      2 
1 
1 

1 

1      2      4 
2 
1      3 
1             1 

1      1 
1 
1             1 
2             1 

1 

1 

35 
34 
33 
32 
31 

1 
1 
1 

2 
1 

3      1 
3      3 
3 
1      4     3 
1      2      4 

2      2 
2             1 
233 
5      2 
434 

1 

2             2 
2 

30 
29 
28 
27 

1 
2 

1      3      3 

243 
222 
5      5 

3      2 
4      2      1 

452 
324 

3      2 
222 
4             1 
3      1      1 

1 

2  1 

1 

i 
i 

i 

25 
24 
23 

1 

1      1 
1      1 

1      9 

14      5      8 
426 
663 

4      3 
2      1      1 
843 

5  1 
3  1  2 
234 

i        i 
i 

3      4 

3  1 

1  3 

21 

1 

2      2 

682 

666 

334 

333 

7 

20 
19 
18 
17 
16 

1 

2      2 
2 

1 

335 
6     5 
3      4 
3      1 
1      1 

6      5    10 
2    11    11 
738 
278 
3      2    10 

344 

668 
366 
7  9  12 
979 

529 
434 

867 
6      9    11 
8    12      6 

321 
942 
10  8  3 
13  6  2 

14  8  4 

i 

2 
2 

15 
14 
13 
12 
11 

2      1 

1      2      2 
317 
2     4      1 
3 

373 
476 
1  1  3 
1  1  2 
1  1  3 

10      9      8 
6    15    11 
4     4    16 
389 
2      3 

15  13  10 
21  17  3 
12  13  12 
11  12  3 

872 

1      9 

2      1    10 
2             7 
12 
1           23 

10 
9 
8 
7 
6 

2 

3      1 

7      5      2 
1      1 
3      1 

24 
15 
6 
3 

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Ordinate:  Tune  in  seconds. 

Abscissa:  Age,  middle  value  of. 

F:  No.  of  failures  per  age  (excluded). 

In  parentheses:  No.  per  age  in  distribution. 


THE  WITHER  FORMBOARD. 


105 


TABLE  II. — DISTRIBUTION  OF  SHORTEST  TRIAL  TIME  RECORDS  OF  1375  GIRLS. 


F 

8    11    12 

5    16    12 

7     10      5 

3      1      2 

3      1 

2 

1      1      2 

103 

86 
85 

76 
71 
56 

1 
1 

1 

1 
1 

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55 
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53 
52 
51 

1      1 

1 

1      1 

1 

50 
49 
48 
47 
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1 

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1      1 
1 

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44 
43 
42 
41 

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1      1 

3 
1 
1      1 

2 

2 

1             1 

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40 
39 
38 
37 
36 

1 
1 
1      1 

1      1 

1      1 
6      2 
1      1      1 

1 
2 
1      1 
3 

1 

1      1 

1 

35 
34 
33 
32 
31 

1      I 
1 

1 
1      1 

1            2 
1      1 
132 
1      3 
1      4      1 

2 
2      3 
2      1 

2             2 
10      5      1 

1 

2      2      1 
122 

1 

1 

1 

30 
29 
28 
27 
26 

I 
1 

1      3      3 
5      2 
1      1      3 
243 
3      1      5 

4      4      1 

236 
5      2      1 
234 
672 

2             2 
1            2 
1 
2             1 
4      1      2 

1 
3     2 
2 

2 
2      1      1 

1      2 
5      1      1 

1 

1 
1 

25 
24 
23 
22 

2 
1 

425 
1      2      1 
1      4 
1      3 

354 

588 
583 
2      1    12 

6      2      1 
272 
534 
10      4      7 

1     *1      3 
6      1      2 
1      1 
525 

4      1 
1      1      2 
321 

2      1      2 

1 

1     3 
2            1 
7      1 

1 

20 

1 

652 

7     7      1 

2 

18 
17 

214 
2      4 

663 
4      6    11 

5    14      8 
10      6      6 

9    14    11 
8    10      7 

17     5      1 
17      6     2 

1 
4 

15 
14 
13 
12 
11 

1 
1 

238 
1      1      1 
1 

2 

357 
5      3    11 
213 
3             2 

8    10      4 
4    11      7 
7    10      9 
2      2      1 

18      8      5 
15      6      6 
12      8      3 
5      5      1 
532 

4      1      7 
3            6 
4      1    17 
1      I    14 
23 

10 
9 
8 
7 
6 

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1      1 

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6 
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1             1 
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Ordinate:  Time  in  seconds. 

Abscissa:  Age,  middle  value  of. 

F:  No.  of  failures  per  age  (excluded). 

In  parentheses:  No.  per  age  in  distribution. 


106 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 


TABLE  III. — TIME  VALUES  AND  NUMBER  OF  CASES  OF  DIFFERENT  AGES — BOYS. 


Age 

Number 
of  Cases 

Mean 

Standard 
Devia- 
tion 

Min- 
imum 

Lowest 
Quintile 

Lower 
Quintile 

Median 

Upper 
Quintile 

Highest 
Quintile 

Max- 
imum 

6.25 

49 

31.4 

8.29 

20 

26 

28 

30.0 

32 

37 

58 

6.75 

60 

31.2 

8.47 

17 

23 

28 

29.7 

31 

39 

55 

7.25 

75 

27.5 

5.41 

20 

23 

25 

26.0 

28 

32 

45 

7.75 

73 

24.9 

6.43 

15 

19 

22 

23.3 

25 

31 

46 

8.25 

72 

24.5 

5.01 

15 

20 

22 

24.2 

25 

28 

37 

8.75 

72 

22.3 

4.91 

13 

18 

21 

22.1 

23 

27 

36 

9.25 

71 

20.9 

4.70 

13 

17 

19 

20.6 

22 

23 

37 

9.75 

88 

19.5 

4.50 

12 

16 

18 

19.0 

20 

22 

32 

10.25 

62 

19.4 

4.28 

11 

16 

17 

18.8 

20 

23 

30 

10.75 

65 

18.0 

4.57 

10 

15 

16 

17.3 

18 

21 

38 

11.25 

72 

17.7 

3.47 

11 

14 

17 

17.4 

18 

21 

26 

11.75 

62 

17.1 

3.30 

12 

14 

16 

16.6 

17 

20 

27 

12.25 

85 

16.1 

3.56 

10 

13 

15 

15.7 

16 

19 

30 

12.75 

95 

15.9 

3.64 

9 

13 

15 

15.4 

17 

19 

26 

13.50 

137 

15.2 

3.23 

8 

12 

14 

15.0 

16 

18 

23 

14.50 

101 

14.5 

3.00 

8 

12 

13 

14.2 

15 

17 

23 

15.50 

46 

14.6 

3.05 

9 

13 

13 

14.5 

15 

16 

27 

Adult 

121 

11.8 

2.96 

7 

9 

10 

11.1 

15 

16 

23 

TABLE  IV. TIME  VALUES  AND  NUMBER  OF  CASES  OF  DIFFERENT  AGES GIRLS. 


Age 

Number 
of  Cases 

Mean 

Standard 
Devia- 
tion 

Min- 
imum 

Lowest 
Quintile 

Lower 
Quintile 

Median 

Upper 
Quintile 

Highest 
Quintile 

Max- 
imum 

6.25 

52 

34.8 

11,21 

22 

26 

29 

31.4 

33 

40 

76 

6.75 

46 

32.0 

10.43 

20 

25 

27 

29.3 

30 

37 

86 

7.25 

70 

28.1 

7.41 

18 

22 

25 

27.3 

29 

31 

56 

7.75 

70 

26.8 

6.13 

17 

22 

24 

25.6 

26 

31 

51 

8.25 

73 

23.5 

4.94 

12 

19 

22 

22.5 

24 

28 

42 

8.75 

68 

22.0 

5.21 

13 

18 

20 

21.4 

23 

26 

38 

9.25 

67 

21.5 

5.48 

12 

18 

19 

20.8 

21 

24 

40 

9.75 

73 

20.9 

4.75 

14 

16 

18 

20.0 

21 

23 

54 

10.25 

61 

18.3 

3.39 

12 

15 

17 

18.1 

19 

21 

25 

10.75 

68 

19.4 

4.36 

11 

16 

18 

18.5 

19 

21 

37 

11.25 

70 

17.8 

3.68 

12 

14 

16 

17.4 

18 

21 

27 

11.75 

86 

19.0 

5.04 

10 

15 

17 

18.1 

19 

23 

31 

12.25 

94 

17.0 

3.76 

10 

14 

16 

17.0 

18 

20 

29 

12.75 

68 

17.2 

3.53 

9 

14 

16 

17.3 

18 

20 

29 

13.50 

144 

16.6 

3.61 

9 

14 

15 

16.5 

17 

19 

30 

14.50 

71 

16.0 

3.53 

8 

13 

15 

15.8 

16 

20 

24 

15.50 

29 

14.9 

3.37 

7 

13 

14 

14.7 

15 

17 

23 

Adult 

100 

12.3 

2.72 

6 

10 

11 

12.1 

13 

14 

22 

THE  WITHER  FORMBOARD.  107 

method  of  giving  the  test  permits  the  expression  of  greater  individu- 
ality on  the  part  of  the  subject.  It  is  less  mechanical  and  allows 
him  more  freedom  in  the  employment  of  his  own  resources.  In  the 
second  place,  the  scope  of  the  investigation  is  larger  and  includes 
a  relatively  wider  range  of  individuals,  being  made  up  of  children 
from  both  the  better  and  the  poorer  districts  of  the  city.  Had  the 
investigation  been  confined  to  either  of  these  districts  alone,  a 
distinctly  different  distribution  of  records  would  have  resulted. 
The  standard  deviations  would  then  be  considerably  smaller  than 
they  are  under  the  present  distribution.  The  central  values  of  the 
records  from  the  better  districts  of  the  city  are  distinctly  below 
those  from  the  poorer  sections.  The  maximum  record  for  each  age 
group  was  made  in  87  per  cent  of  the  groups  of  girls  and  83  per  cent 
of  the  groups  of  boys,  by  children  from  the  poorer  sections  of  the 
city;  while  the  minimum  record  for  each  age  group  was  made  in 
87  per  cent  of  the  groups  of  girls  and  70  per  cent  of  the  groups  of 
boys,  by  children  from  the  better  sections  of  the  city.  This  is  not 
an  attempt  to  contrast  the  better  sections  of  the  city  with  the  poorer 
sections,  but  a  practical  demonstration  of  the  pitfalls,  and  the 
impossibility  of  establishing  reliable  norms  by  testing  only  a  couple 
of  thousand  children.  It  is  absurd  to  label  as  a  standardization  the 
results  obtained  by  testing  only  several  hundred  children. 

Tables  III  and  IV  contain  the  computed  results  of  the  distribu- 
tions of  the  time  records  for  the  ages  in  which  the  number  of  cases 
tested  is  sufficient  to  warrant  a  reasonable  confidence  in  their 
reliability.  Table  III  contains  the  records  of  the  boys,  and  table  IV 
those  of  the  girls.  In  both  tables  the  first  column  indicates  the 
ages,  the  second  the  number  of  cases  for  each  age  group,  and  the 
remaining  columns  represent  time  values  in  seconds  as  calculated 
from  the  records  for  each  age.  The  third  column-  contains  the 
mean  time  and  the  fourth  the  standard  deviations.  The  fifth  con- 
tains the  lowest,  i.  e.  shortest,  or  minimum  record  for  each  age; 
the  sixth  column,  the  lowest  quintile,  or  the  value  of  that  record 
below  which  20  per  cent  of  the  cases  are  distributed;  the  seventh 
column,  the  lower  quintile,  or  that  value  below  which  40  per  cent 
of  the  cases  are  distributed;  the  eighth  column,  the  median,  or 
that  value  above  and  below  which  50  per  cent  of  the  cases  are  dis- 
tributed; the  ninth  column,  the  upper  quintile,  or  that  value  above 
which  40  per  cent  of  the  cases  are  distributed;  the  tenth  column, 
the  highest  quintile,  or  that  value  above  which  20  per  cent  of  the 
cases  are  distributed;  the  eleventh  column,  the  maximum  or  longest 
record  made  by  any  individual  of  the  group. 

The  central  values,  as  indicated  by  the  relatively  large  standard 


108 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 


CHART  I. BOYS. 


20 


15 


10 


THE  WITHER  FORMBOARD. 

CHART  II. — GIRLS. 


109 


85 


80 


•  O 


110  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 

deviations,  especially  for  the  lower  ages,  are  only  approximately 
reliable  and  are  not  presented  as  absolute  and  final  norms.  By 
this  we  mean,  that  these  values  do  not  determine  the  standard  of 
normality  so  accurately  that  a  child  in  order  to  be  considered  normal 
must  perform  the  test  in  exactly  mean  or  median  time;  or  stated 
inversely,  that  a  child  who  performs  the  test  in  a  given  length  of 
time  has  the  mentality  of  that  age  for  which  his  time  happens  to 
be  the  mean  or  median  value.  In  contradistinction  to  what  certain 
published  reports  would  have  us  believe,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  neither  normality  nor  mentality,  whatever  they  are,  can  be 
represented  by  a  point,  or  rated  by  reference  to  any  absolute  standard. 

A  graphic  representation  of  the  distribution  of  the  time  records 
of  the  children  in  tables  III  and  IV  is  given  in  charts  I  and  II.  On 
the  abscissa  are  the  ages,  and  on  the  ordinate,  the  time  in  seconds. 
The  lowest  shaded  portion  is  bounded  by  the  minimum  and  lowest 
quintile.  It  contains  the  time  records  of  the  lowest  20  per  cent 
of  all  records.  The  middle  shaded  portion,  bounded  by  the  lower 
and  upper  quintiles,  is  known  as  the  middle  quintile  and  contains 
the  middle  20  per  cent  of  the  records,  40  per  cent  lying  above  and 
40  per  cent  below.  The  uppermost  shaded  portion,  bounded  by  the 
highest  quintile  and  the  maximum  for  each  age,  contains  the  highest 
20  per  cent  of  all  records.  The  unshaded  portions  bounding  the 
middle  quintile  each  contain  20  per  cent  of  the  records. 

Reference  to  these  tables  and  charts  shows  (1)  that  formboard 
ability  increases  at  least  to  the  age  of  fifteen;  (2)  that  half-yearly 
norms  are  not  only  possible,  but  necessary,  up  at  least  to  the  age  of 
thirteen,  if  a  standardization  is  to  have  practical  va  ue;  and  (3) 
that  boys  are  on  the  average  superior  to  girls  in  the  test.  The 
actual  value  and  extent  of  the  differences  here  enumerated  and 
established  can  be  determined  only  by  continued  application  of  the 
test  to  many  more  hundreds  of  children.  Until  such  an  extension 
is  made  these  tables  and  charts  will  have  to  serve  as  the  basis  of 
comparison  for  records  obtained  with  the  use  of  the  same  board  by 
the  same  method. 

The  most  expeditious  way  of  using  the  charts  to  compare  a 
given  record,  is  to  refer  the  record  first  to  its  proper  sex  and  age 
group.  Its  relative  position  within  this  group  should  then  be  deter- 
mined by  locating  it  with  reference  to  the  quintile  within  which 
it  falls. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

1.  GODDARD,  H.  H.     The  Formboard  as  a  measure  of  intellectual  development 

in  children.     Reprint  from  The  Training  School  [Bulletin],  1912,  9,  49-52. 

2.  JONES,  E.  E.     Individual  differences  in  school  children.     THE  PSYCHOL. 

CLINIC,  1913,  6,  241-251. 


THE  WITHER  FORMBOARD.  Ill 

3.  NORSWORTHY,  N.     Psychology  of  mentally  deficient  children.     Columbia 

University  Cont.  to  Philos.  and  Psychol.,  1906.    Pp.  111. 

4.  PINTNER,  RUDOLF,  and  PATERSON,  DONALD  G.     The  Formboard  ability 

of  young  deaf  and  hearing  children.     THE  PSYCHOL.  CLINIC,  1916,  9,  234. 

5.  STATE  BOARD  OF  CHARITIES,  NEW  YORK.    Eleven  mental  tests  standardized. 

Eugenics  and  Social  Welfare  Bulletin,  No.  5.     Albany,  New  York;    1915. 

6.  SYLVESTER,  REUEL  HULL.     The  Formboard  test.     Psychol.  Review  Mono- 

graphs, Vol.  XV,  No.  4,  Sept.,  1913,  Whole  No.  65.     Princeton,  N.  J.: 
Psychol.  Review  Co.    Pp.  56. 

7.  Op.  cU.  (7-9) 

8.  "    "    (25  ff) 

9.  "     "    (39-43,51-52) 

10.  "    "    (35,46-19) 

11.  "    (19) 

12.  WALLIN,  J.  E.  W.     Age  norms  of  psycho-motor  capacity.     J.  of  Educa. 

Psychol.,  1916,  7,  17-27. 
13 Experimental  studies  of  mental  defectives.     Educa.  Psychol. 

Mono.,  No.  7.     Baltimore:   Warwick  and  York,  1912.    Pp.  155. 
14 Human  efficiency.     Ped.  Sem.,  1911,  18,  74-84. 

15.  WHIPPLE,  G.  M.     Manual  of  mental  and  physical  tests.     Part  I,  297  pp. 

Baltimore:  Warwick  and  York,  1914.     (297  ff). 

16.  WITMER,  LIGHTNER.     Courses  in  psychology  at  the  summer  school  of  the 

University  of  Pennsylvania.     THE  PSYCHOL.  CLINIC,  1910-1911,  4,  247 
and  249. 

17 A  Monkey  with  a  mind.     THE  PSYCHOL.  CLINIC,  1909-1910, 

3,  179-205. 


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